Malleability zamkuwa. Zochita za mkuwa

Malleability otchedwa chiwopsezo zitsulo ndi kasakaniza wazitsulo kwa kulipira ndi zina mankhwala kuthamanga. Iyi ndi zojambula, mitundu, pakubwezeretsa kapena kukanikiza. malleability mkuwa Iwo yodziwika ndi osati mapindikidwe kukana, komanso moldability. plasticity ndi chiyani? Luso limeneli la zitsulo kusintha contours ake opanikizika popanda kuswa. zitsulo malleable monga mkuwa, zitsulo, duralumin ndi zina mkuwa ena, magnesium, faifi tambala, zotayidwa kasakaniza wazitsulo. Kuti iwo ndi mkulu mlingo wa plasticity ali pamodzi ndi kukana otsika mapindikidwe.

zamkuwa

N'zochititsa chidwi, izo zikuwoneka ngati khalidwe la mkuwa? Amadziwika kuti ndi mbali ya gulu 11 4 nyengo zinthu mankhwala D. I. Mendeleeva. atomu ake ali 29 zipinda ndipo amaimira chizindikiro Cu. Ndipotu, izi ndi Transitional zitsulo Pulasitiki pinki ndi golide bulauni. Mwa njira, ali ndi mtundu pinki, ngati okusayidi filimu palibe. Kuyambira kalekale, chinthu ichi ntchito ndi anthu.

nkhani

Mmodzi wa zitsulo woyamba kuti anthu anayamba kugwiritsa ntchito mwakhama ndalama zake, ndi mkuwa. Inde, inunso lilipo chifukwa chiphaso ku miyalayo ndipo ali limatsogolera mfundo otsika. Iwo akhala kudziwika kwa anthu Zisanu ndi zitsulo, amene mulinso mkuwa. Mu chikhalidwe, mchitidwe umenewu ndi ambiri kuposa siliva, golide kapena chitsulo. zinthu zakale za slag mkuwa, ndi pangano kuti yadothi ake ores. Iwo anapeza zofukulidwa wa Pamudzi Çatalhöyük. Amadziwika kuti Mkuwa Age ambiri anali amkuwa zinthu. amatsata mwala mu mbiri ya dziko lapansi.

S. A. Semonov ndi ogwira ntchito maphunziro komanso kuti anapeza kuti zipangizo zamkuwa poyerekeza ndi mwala phindu mu njira zambiri. Iwo ndi apamwamba liwiro planing, kuboola, kudula ndi kumaliza nkhuni. A mankhwala a mpeni fupa mkuwa kumatenga zambiri, ndipo mwala. Koma mkuwa imatengedwa chitsulo zofewa.

Nthawi zambiri, kalelo icho chinali kugwiritsidwa ntchito m'malo aloyi mkuwa ndi tini - zamkuwa. Kunali kofunikira kupanga zida ndi zinthu zina. Choncho, m'malo Mkuwa Age anabwera mkuwa ndi. Mkuwa kwa nthawi yoyamba analandira mu Middle East kwa zaka 3000 BC. E:. Anthu monga mphamvu ndi ductility kwambiri mkuwa. Kuyambira mkuwa chifukwa anapita zida kwambiri ndi kusaka, mbale, zokongoletsa. Onse a zinthu izi zimapezeka zofukulidwa m'mabwinja. Komanso Mkuwa Age anagwetsa chitsulo.

Momwe mkuwa akanatha akale? Poyamba, si yotengedwa sulfide komanso miyala Malachite. Inde, mu nkhani iyi, kuchita yowotcha kuyambirira sizinali zofunikira. Miyala yamtengo wapatali ndi khala izi osakaniza anaikidwa mu mphika dongo. chotengera chinakhazikitsidwa mu dzenje losaya ndi osakaniza ndi akayaka. Kenako akuyamba kubala carbon monoxide, yomwe inathandiza kuti kubwezeretsa Malachite ufulu mkuwa.

Amadziwika kuti Cyprus mu lachitatu Zakachikwi BC zinamangidwa migodi mkuwa, zomwe zinachitikadi yadothi.

Mayiko a Russia ndi limati oyandikana migodi mkuwa ndi anatuluka pa awiri zaka BC. e. owonongedwa ndi mu Urals, ndi Ukraine, ndi Caucasus, ndi Altai, ndi kutali Siberia.

Industrial limatsogolera lamkuwa ntchito m'nthawi ya khumi ndi chitatu. Ndipo mu chakhumi ndi chisanu Cannon Yard unakhazikitsidwa mu Moscow. Kumeneko mu mfuti mkuwa osewera a calibers osiyana. Zosaneneka kuchuluka kwa mkuwa anathera pa kupanga mabelu. Mu 1586, mkuwa ndi anaponyedwa Tsar Cannon, m'chaka cha 1735 - ndi Tsar Bell mu 1782. The Mkuwa pamahatchi analengedwa. Mu 752, mbuye opangidwa zazikulu Big Buddha fano mu kachisi wa Todai-ji Temple. Ambiri, mndandanda wa ntchito za luso foundry zambiri.

M'zaka za m'ma chakhumi ndi chisanu ndi chitatu anthu anapeza magetsi. Zinali ndiye kuti ndalama zikuluzikulu zamkuwa anayamba kuchoka kupanga waya ndi mankhwala ofanana. Mu zaka mazana makumi awiri, mawaya taphunzira kuti zotayidwa, koma mkuwa okonza magetsi akadali anali ndi tanthauzo lalikulu.

Chiyambi cha dzina

Ndipo inu mukudziwa chimene Cuprum - ndi dzina Latin zamkuwa, linachokera ku dzina la Chilumba cha Cyprus? Mwa njira, mu Strabo mkuwa zayekha halkosom - mzinda wa Halkida pa Euboea wolakwa chiyambi cha dzinalo. Ambiri maina Greek mkuwa ndi mkuwa zinthu zachitika ndi ku Mawu awa. Iwo ankagwiritsa ntchito blacksmithing, mwa kulipira ndi kutulutsa katundu. Nthawi zina amatchedwa mkuwa Aes, kutanthauza miyala kapena langa.

The Asilavo mawu "mkuwa" si kutchulidwa etymology. Mwina ndi zachikale. Koma nthawi zambiri amapezeka mu manda amakezana zolembalemba wa Russia. V. I. Abaev anaganiza kuti mawu amenewa likuchokera ku dzina la dziko la Media. Mkuwa asayansi otchedwa "Venus". Kale icho chinali kutchedwa "Mars".

Ali mkuwa chikhalidwe?

The kutumphuka akugwirizira (4,7-5,5) X 10 ^-3% mkuwa (by kulemera). The madzi ndi nyanja madzi ndi zochepa: 10 ^-7% ndi 3 x 10 ^-7% (by kulemera) motero.

Mu chikhalidwe, ndi zambiri mkuwa mankhwala. makampani amagwiritsa CuFeS ₂ chalcopyrite otchedwa mkuwa pyrites, bornite Cu ₅ FeS _4, chalcocite Cu ₂ S. Imodzi anthu kupeza ndi zina mchere mkuwa cuprite Cu ₂ O, Cu azurite ₃ (NKHA _{3) 2} (o) _2, Cu Malachite ₂ NKHA ₃ (o) ₂ ndi covellite CuS. Nthawi zambiri, kulemera munthu wa masango mkuwa matani 400. sulfides mkuwa anapanga makamaka sing'anga-kutentha Madziwo mitsempha. Nthawi zambiri miyala nyanja mungapeze madipoziti mkuwa - shale ndi mkuwa sandstones. The madipoziti kwambiri kudziwika ndi mu Trans-Baikal Gawo Udokan Zhezkazgan ku Kazakhstan, Mansfeld ku Germany ndi nectariferous lamba la Africa Central. Ena olemera mkuwa gawo ili ku Chile (Kolyausi ndi Escondida) ndi USA (Morensi).

Ambiri mwa miyala mkuwa ncho ndi njira yotseguka. Lili kwa 0,3 kwa 1.0% mkuwa.

thupi katundu

owerenga ambiri amachita chidwi ndi malongosoledwe a mkuwa. Izi pinki pulasitiki ndi golide zitsulo. Pamwamba pake mpweya yomweyo yokutidwa ndi filimu okusayidi, amene amaupereka ngati kwambiri hue red-chikasu. N'zochititsa chidwi kuti woonda filimu ya mkuwa ndi buluu wobiriwira mtundu.

Osmium, cesium, mkuwa ndi golide mu mtundu ndi mtundu womwewo, wosiyana ena imvi kapena siliva zitsulo. kamvekedwe Izi mtundu akusonyeza pamaso pa kusintha elekitironi pakati wachinayi theka chopanda ndi kudzazidwa ndi orbitals lachitatu atomiki. Pakati pa iwo pali ena mphamvu kusiyana lolingana timaganiza za mtundu lalanje. Dongosolo yemweyo ndi amene mtundu yeniyeni ya golide.

ndi zodabwitsa kwambiri khalidwe la mkuwa chiyani? zitsulo chimapanga nkhope zokha latisi kiyubiki, danga gulu Fm3m, ndi = 0,36150 nm, Z = 4.

A mkuwa zambiri wotchuka wa mkulu magetsi ndi matenthedwe madutsidwe. Malinga ndi likhale panopa ndi pakati pa zitsulo lachiwiri. Zodabwitsa ndizakuti, mkuwa chimphona ali ndi kutentha koyefishienti kukaniza ndi lonse kutentha osiyanasiyana pafupifupi palokha zizindikiro zake. Mkuwa amatchedwa diamagnetic.

Mkuwa kasakaniza wazitsulo zosiyanasiyana. Anthu anaphunzira zimagwirizizirana ndi nthaka ndi mkuwa, faifi tambala siliva ndi faifi tambala ndi babbitt patsogolo, mkuwa ndi tini ndi zitsulo zina.

isotopes mkuwa

Mkuwa ali awiri isotopes khola - ⁶³ Cu ndi ⁶⁵ Cu, omwe kuwanda kwa 69,1 ndi 30,9 peresenti atomiki motero. Nthawi zambiri, pali oposa khumi ndi awiri isotopes ndi osalimba. The isotope yaitali ankakhala ndi ⁶⁷ Cu ndi moyo theka la maola 62.

Momwe mkuwa?

Kupanga mkuwa ndi chidwi kwambiri ndondomeko. zitsulo izi zakonzedwa kwa mkuwa ores ndi mchere. Njira zofunika kukonzekera ndi mkuwa hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, ndi electrolysis.

Taganizirani njira pyrometallurgical. Malinga ndi njira, mkuwa ores sulfidic, monga chalcopyrite, CuFeS _2. The chalcopyrite feedstock ndi 0,5-2,0% Cu. Choyamba, miyala koyamba ndi asamire. Ndiye, oxidizing Kukuwotcha pa kutentha madigiri 1400. Komanso Nsembe maganizo zipita yadothi kuti matte. Kumangidwa ndi chitsulo okusayidi mu Sungunulani anawonjezera silika.

The silicate chifukwa monga slag amayandama ndipo analekana. Pa pansi akhala matte - sulphides aloyi Cu ₂ S ndi FeS. Ndiponso, isungunuke ndi njira Henry Bessemer. Kuti zimenezi zitheke, Converter udzathiridwa osungunula matte. Ndiye chidebe anayeretsedwa ndi oxygen. A sulfide ayironi amene anali oxidized kuti okusayidi ntchito silika kuchotsedwa ndondomeko monga silicate. Mkuwa sulfide ndi oxidized kuti okusayidi mkuwa si kwathunthu, koma kenako kusanduka mkuwa zachitsulo.

The chithuza mkuwa analandira zili 90,95% wa zitsulo. Kalatayi pansi pa electrolytic kuyeretsa. N'zochititsa chidwi kuti electrolyte ndi njira acidic wa sulphate mkuwa.

Iwo apangidwa pa cathode electrolytic mkuwa amene ali pafupipafupi mkulu wa za 99,99%. Zinthu zopangidwa ndi mkuwa opangidwa osiyana kwambiri: mawaya, zamagetsi, kasakaniza wazitsulo.

Hydrometallurgical njira ndi yosiyana. Pali mkuwa mchere banja lawo kusungunuka asidi sulfuric kapena njira ammoniacal. Ku zakumwa okonzeka aithamangitse mkuwa zitsulo zitsulo.

Chemical katundu zamkuwa

Mu mankhwala zamkuwa limasonyeza limati awiri makutidwe ndi okosijeni +1 ndi +2. The woyamba amamuchititsa akanagwiritsa ndi wosasunthika okha mankhwala insoluble kapena maofesi. Zodabwitsa ndizakuti, mkuwa colorless pawiri.

The makutidwe ndi okosijeni boma la +2 wolimba kwambiri. Limapereka mchere buluu ndipo cyan. Mu zinthu zachilendo akhoza kukhala okonzekera mankhwala ndi zina mwa makutidwe ndi okosijeni wa +3 ndi +5 ngakhale. inawo ambiri opezeka salt kupraboranovogo anion zopezera 1994.

Koyera mkuwa mpweya sanasinthe. Izi ofooka kuchepetsa wothandizila Kodi samva acid kuchepetsa hydrochloric ndi madzi. Oxidized anaikira nitric ndi zidulo sulfuric, halogens, mpweya, ndi "Aqua regia", oxides omwe sanali zitsulo, chalcogens. Pamene usavutike, umakaphatikizana ndi halides wa hydrogen.

Ngati mpweya ndi lonyowa, mkuwa ndi oxidized, kupanga mkuwa carbonate zofunika (II). Umakaphatikizana mwangwiro ndi asidi otentha ndi ozizira zimalimbikitsa sulfuric, anhydrous otentha sulfuric acid.

Ndi kuchepetsa hydrochloric asidi mkuwa amachitira pamaso pa oxygen.

Analytical umagwirira mkuwa

Aliyense akudziwa kuti umagwirira izi. Mkuwa njira n'zosavuta kudziwa. Kuchita izi, ndi pulatinamu waya moisten njira mayeso, ndipo onjezerani izo kwa Bunsen burner lawi. Ngati mkuwa chili mwa njira, lawi adzakhala akuda mu wobiriwira ndi buluu. Muyenera kudziwa kuti:

• Childs, kuchuluka kwa mkuwa njira ofooka acidic chimaonekera mwa sulfide wa hydrogen: ndi wothira thunthu. Childs, sulfide mkuwa precipitates.
• Mu njira zimenezo pamene palibe ayoni n'kusokoneza, mkuwa kudziwa complexometric, potentiometric kapena potentiometrically.
• wochepa mkuwa njira chimaonekera njira kawalidwe ndi kayendedwe.

The ntchito zamkuwa

Gwirizanani kuphunzira Zamkuwa ndi chinthu chotchedwa kwambiri. Choncho, zitsulo yogwira ali otsika resistivity. Chifukwa cha khalidwe la mkuwa ntchito yopanga mphamvu magetsi ndi zingwe zina, mawaya ndi ochititsa ena. Mkuwa waya ntchito windings wa tiransifoma mphamvu ndi abulusa magetsi. Kulenga nkhani zatchulidwazi zitsulo anasankha woyera kwambiri, kuyambira zosafunika yomweyo kuchepetsa madutsidwe magetsi. Ngati mkuwa chili mwa 0,02% ya zotayidwa, madutsidwe ake magetsi kuti kuchepa ndi 10%.

Chinthu china chofunika ndicho waukuru matenthedwe madutsidwe zamkuwa. Chifukwa chuma ichi ntchito zosiyanasiyana kuzizira kutentha, mapaipi kutentha, zipangizo teplootvodnyh ndi coolers kompyuta.

Ndipo ali kuuma kwa mkuwa ntchito? Amadziwika kuti kosatayana mkuwa chubu cha gawo zozungulira mtanda ali kwambiri mawotchi mphamvu. Iwo ali bwino kupirira akuchitira makina ndi ntchito kusuntha zakumwa ndi mpweya. Childs, angapezeke mu mkati mpweya okwanira ndi madzi kachitidwe, kachitidwe magetsi. Iwo ankagwiritsa ntchito mayunitsi refrigeration ndi machitidwe mpweya.

Kwambiri kuuma kwa mkuwa amadziwika m'mayiko ambiri. Choncho, France, UK ndi Australia, ndi mapaipi amkuwa ntchito kotunga mpweya wa nyumba ku Sweden - kwa Kutentha, mu US, UK ndi Hong Kong - ndi chuma chachikulu kotunga madzi.

Mu Russia, kupanga machubu madzi ndi mpweya mkuwa dekhetsa muyezo GOST R 52318-2005 ndi Federal Code wa Khalani SP 40-108-2004 nthawi ntchito zawo. Mipope za mkuwa ndi kasakaniza wazitsulo ake ankagwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zomangamanga ndi shipbuilding kusuntha nthunzi ndi zakumwa.

Kodi mukudziwa kuti mkuwa kasakaniza wazitsulo ntchito zosiyanasiyana minda ya sayansi? Awa, wotchuka kwambiri amaonedwa mkuwa ndi mkuwa. Onse kasakaniza wazitsulo monga banja yaikulu kwambiri zipangizo, amene kusiya nthaka ndi tini zingaphatikizepo bismuth, faifi tambala ndi zitsulo zina. Mwachitsanzo, gunmetal ntchito mpaka m'zaka chakhumi ndi chisanu ndi chinayi kupanga zipolopolo zida zankhondo lopangidwa ndi mkuwa, tini ndi nthaka. chiphunzitso ake zosiyanasiyana malinga ndi malo komanso nthawi mfuti kupanga.

Aliyense akudziwa processability kwambiri ndi mkulu ductility zamkuwa. Chifukwa katundu awa, kuchuluka zosaneneka za mkuwa masamba kwa kupanga manja kwa manja ndi zida zankhondo zipolopolo. N'zochititsa chidwi kuti mbali anapangidwa wa kasakaniza wazitsulo mkuwa pakachitsulo, nthaka, tini zotayidwa ndi zipangizo zina. kasakaniza wazitsulo mkuwa yodziwika ndi mphamvu yapamwamba ndi processing matenthedwe kusunga katundu wawo makina. avale awo kukana anatsimikiza okha zikuchokera mankhwala ndi zotsatira zake pa kukonza. Tikumbukenso kuti lamulo limeneli siligwira ntchito kwa mkuwa beryllium ndi ena bronzes zotayidwa.

Mkuwa kasakaniza wazitsulo ndi modulus wa elasticity poyerekeza kuti chitsulo. awo mwayi waukulu angatchedwe ndi mikangano koyefishienti wamng'ono, pamodzi kwa kasakaniza wazitsulo kwambiri ndi ductility mkulu, kwambiri magetsi madutsidwe ndipo kwambiri kukana dzimbiri mu chilengedwe zikuwononga. Monga ulamuliro, ndi mkuwa, zitsulo zotayidwa ndi kasakaniza wazitsulo mkuwa faifi tambala. Zodabwitsa ndizakuti, iwo aona ntchito yawo mu awiriawiri kutsetsereka.

Pafupifupi kasakaniza wazitsulo zonse zamkuwa ndi ukulu womwewo wa koyefishienti ndi kukhululukirana. Komabe, avale kukana ndi katundu makina, khalidwe mapangidwe zikuwononga mwachindunji amadalira aloyi zikuchokera. The ductility zamkuwa ntchito osakwatiwa-gawo kasakaniza wazitsulo, ndi mphamvu - mu magawo awiri. Melchior (coppernickel aloyi) ntchito minting ndalamayo. Mkuwa faifi tambala kasakaniza wazitsulo, kuphatikizapo "admiralty", ntchito shipbuilding. Anachita machubu kwa condensers, kukonza chopangira mphamvu utsi nthunzi. N'zochititsa chidwi kuti turbines ali utakhazikika ndi madzi a m'nyanja. Mkuwa faifi tambala kasakaniza wazitsulo ndi chodabwitsa dzimbiri kukana, kotero iwo amakonda kugwiritsa ntchito m'madera zokhudzana ndi zochita za anthu ankhanza a madzi nyanja.

Ndipotu, mkuwa ndi akuluakulu zikuluzikulu za solders olimba - kasakaniza wazitsulo ndi limatsogolera mfundo za 590 ndi 880 madigiri Celsius. Ndi chibadidwe iwo guluu wolimba kwambiri kuti zitsulo kwambiri, moti ntchito kwa kugwirizana okhazikika a m'madera osiyanasiyana zitsulo. Izi zikhoza kukhala zovekera chitoliro kapena injini ndege madzimadzi, zopangidwa ndi zitsulo yosiyana.

Tsopano lembani kasakaniza wazitsulo imene mkuwa ductility n'kofunika. Duralumin kapena Duralumin ndi zotayidwa aloyi ndi mkuwa. Apa, mkuwa ndi 4.4%. Kasakaniza wazitsulo zamkuwa golide kawirikawiri amagwiritsidwa ntchito zodzikongoletsera. N'zofunika kusintha mphamvu ya mankhwala. Ndipotu, golide woyenga bwino - chitsulo zofewa, omwe sangathe kugonjetsa nkhawa makina. Zamgululi zopangidwa ndi golide woyenga bwino mwamsanga opunduka ndi abraded.

N'zochititsa chidwi kwa chilengedwe cha okusayidi wa oxides yttrium-barium-mkuwa, mkuwa ntchito. Iye amagwira ntchito monga maziko yopanga superconductors mkulu-kutentha. Mkuwa amagwiritsidwanso ntchito kwa kupanga mabatire ndi mkuwa okusayidi maselo electrochemical.

m'madera ena a ntchito

Kodi mukudziwa kuti mkuwa anagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri monga chothandizira kwa polymerization wa acetylene? Chifukwa katundu uyu wa piping mkuwa ntchito posamutsa acetylene akuloledwa ntchito kokha pamene okhutira mkuwa si upambana 64% ya iwo.

Anthu aphunzira ntchito malleability mkuwa zomangamanga. Pamakoma ndi madenga anapangidwa kuchokera woonda kwambiri pepala mkuwa, ndi vuto lililonse kwa zaka 150. zodabwitsazi mosavuta anafotokoza kuti: mu mbale mkuwa amapezeka avtozatuhanie dzimbiri ndondomeko. Mu Russia, pepala mkuwa pamakoma ndi madenga malinga ndi chakudya cha Code ya Malamulo SP 31-116-2006 Federal.

Posachedwapa anthu kukonzekera ntchito mkuwa monga pamalo microbicidal mu zipatala kapewedwe ka gulu mabakiteriya osuta. kali zonse wokhudza manja a munthu, - khomo amangomvera, handrails, mindandanda yamasewera vodozapornaya, countertops, mabedi - akatswiri udzabala okha ku zitsulo lodabwitsali.

chodetsa mkuwa

Amene mtundu wa mkuwa amagwiritsa nthito anthu kupanga mankhwala zofunika? Pali zambiri: ndi M00, M0, M1, m2, M3. Nthawi zambiri, mtundu kuzindikiridwa mkuwa chiyero cha wokhutira.

Mwachitsanzo, mkuwa sukulu M1r, M2P ndi M3R lili 0,04 phosphorous% ndipo 0.01% mpweya, ndi zizindikiro M1, m2 ndi M3 - 0.05-0.08% oxygen. The sitampu M0b mpweya palibe, ndi kuchuluka wokhutira anali 0,02% mu MO.

Motero, tikambirana mwatsatanetsatane mkuwa. Table, kuponyedwa pa, zingatipatse imfomeshoni zolondola:

Brand mkuwa	M00	M0	M0b	M1	M1r	m2	M2P	M3	M3R	M4
chiwerengero okhutira zamkuwa	99,99	99,95	99,97	99,90	99,70	99,70	99,50	99,50	99,50	99,00

27 sukulu zamkuwa

Okwana pali twente-seveni sukulu ya mkuwa. Kodi kwenikweni kuchuluka kwa zipangizo zamkuwa ntchito munthu? Taganizirani izi nuance mwatsatanetsatane:

• Cu-DPH chuma ntchito kupanga zovekera wofunikila kugwirizana mipope.
• Amp M'pofunika chilengedwe cha anodes wosachedwa adagulung'undisa ndi ozizira adagulung'undisa.
• Amphoux ntchito yopanga anodes ozizira adagulung'undisa ndi wosachedwa adagulung'undisa.
• M0 chofunika kulenga ochititsa mkulu-panopa ndi kasakaniza wazitsulo.
• M00 Zofunika ntchito kupanga mkulu-aloyi ndi ochititsa panopa.
• M001 ntchito kupanga waya, matayala ndi mankhwala ena magetsi.
• M001b zofunika yopangira mankhwala magetsi.
• M00b ntchito kulenga ochititsa panopa kasakaniza wazitsulo mkulu ndi apparatuses makampani magetsi kuyamwa.
• M00k - feedstock kwa chilengedwe cha billets opunduka ndi osewera.
• M0b ntchito kulenga kasakaniza wazitsulo ndi pafupipafupi mkulu.
• M0k ntchito yopanga pulasitala ndi workpieces opunduka.
• M1 anafunika kupanga waya ndi kupanga zida cryogenic.
• M16 ntchito yopanga magetsi zingalowe zipangizo makampani.
• M1E ayenera kulenga ozizira adagulung'undisa zojambulazo ndi tepi.
• M1k muyenera kuti akonze mankhwala theka-yotsirizidwa.
• M1or ntchito mawaya opanga ndi mankhwala ena magetsi.
• M1r ntchito popanga maelekitirodi ntchito chitsulo ndi mkuwa kuwotcherera.
• M1rE zofunika yopanga ozizira adagulung'undisa Mzere ndi zojambulazo.
• M1u ntchito kulenga ozizira adagulung'undisa ndi wosachedwa adagulung'undisa anodes.
• M1f kukhazikitsa tepi, zojambulazo, wosachedwa adagulung'undisa ndi ozizira adagulung'undisa mapepala.
• M2 ntchito popanga theka-yomalizidwa ndi yolimba kasakaniza wazitsulo zochokera mkuwa.
• M2K ntchito yopanga katundu theka-yotsirizidwa.
• M2P wofunikila ndodo kupanga.
• M3 chofunika kwa kupanga kasakaniza wazitsulo adagulung'undisa.
• M3R ntchito kuti nakunkhunizira kasakaniza wazitsulo.
• MB-1 n'kofunika kwa chilengedwe cha beryllium zamkuwa.
• MSr1 ntchito kupanga machenjerero magetsi.