Kutsekemera kwathunthu kwa shuga. Zimene zimakhala ndi shuga zokhudzana ndi shuga

M'nkhani ino, tiona mmene mchere umayambira. Zakudya zamadzimadzi ndizopangidwa ndi mitundu ya polyhydroxycarbonyl, komanso zomwe zimachokera. Zizindikiro - kukhalapo kwa aldehyde kapena ketone magulu ndi magulu awiri a hydroxyl.

Ndi mapangidwe ake amagawidwe amagawidwa kukhala monosaccharides, polysaccharides, oligosaccharides.

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides ndi chakudya chosavuta chimene sichikhoza kuzimitsidwa. Malinga ndi gulu lomwe liripo palimodzi - aldehyde kapena ketone, yodzipatula aldoses (monga galactose, shuga, ribose) ndi ketoses (ribulose, fructose).

Oligosaccharides

Oligosaccharides ndiwo zakudya zomwe zimakhala zatsalira ziwiri kapena khumi zomwe zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi zibwenzi za glycosidic. Malinga ndi kuchuluka kwa zotsalira za monosaccharide, disaccharides, trisaccharides ndi zina zotero zimasiyana. Kodi chimachitika ndi chiyani pamene shuga ndi khungu? Izi zidzafotokozedwa pambuyo pake.

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides ndi chakudya chomwe chiri ndi zoposa khumi zotsalira za monosaccharide zomwe zimagwirizanitsidwa pamodzi ndi mgwirizano wa glycosidic. Ngati polysaccharide yomweyi ili ndi zotsalira zomwe zimakhala monosaccharide, imatchedwa homopolysaccharide (mwachitsanzo, wowuma). Ngati zotsalira zoterezi ndizosiyana - ndiye heteropolysaccharide (mwachitsanzo, heparin).

Kodi tanthauzo la mchere wa shuga ndi chiyani?

Ntchito za chakudya m'thupi la munthu

Zakudya zam'madzi zimapanga ntchito izi:

1. Mphamvu. Ntchito yofunikira kwambiri ya chakudya, pamene imakhala ngati gwero lalikulu la mphamvu m'thupi. Chifukwa cha okosijeni awo, zoposa theka la zosowa za mphamvu zaumunthu zimakwaniritsidwa. Chifukwa cha okosijeni wa galamu imodzi ya chakudya, 16.9 kJ amasulidwa.
2. Kusunga. Glycogen ndi starch ndi mtundu wochuluka wa zakudya.
3. Makhalidwe. Malasila ndi mankhwala ena a polysaccharide amapanga maziko olimba mu zomera. Ndiponso, kuphatikiza ndi lipids ndi mapuloteni, iwo ali mbali ya zinyama zonse zamagetsi.
4. Kuteteza. Kwa heteropolysaccharides acidic, ntchito ya mafuta opangira zinthu imaperekedwa. Amagwiritsa ntchito ziwalo zomwe zimakhudza ndi kuziphwanya wina ndi mzake, mitsempha ya mphuno, ndi kapangidwe kake.
5. Anticoagulant. Zakudya zamagazi, monga heparin, ali ndi malo ofunikira, omwe amateteza magazi.
6. Mavitamini ndi gwero la mpweya wofunikira kuti pulojekiti yamapulotini, lipids ndi nucleic zidulidwe zikhale zofunika.

Pakuti thupi lalikulu la chakudya ndi chakudya cha chakudya - sucrose, starch, shuga, lactose). Guluti amatha kupanga thupi lokha kuchokera ku amino acid, glycerol, lactate ndi pyruvate (gluconeogenesis).

Glycolysis

Glycolysis ndi imodzi mwa mitundu itatu yokha ya okosijeni. Mu njirayi, mphamvu imatulutsidwa, yomwe imasungidwa ku ATP ndi NADH. Mmodzi wa mamolekyu ake amasanduka ma molekyulu a pyruvate.

Mchitidwe wa glycolysis umachitika pogwiritsa ntchito mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya enzymatic substances, ndiko kuti, zotengera za chilengedwe. Chofunika kwambiri cha oxidizer ndi oxygen, koma tiyenera kudziwa kuti glycolysis ingatheke popanda oxygen. Mtundu wofanana wa glycolysis umatchedwa anaerobic.

Glycolysis ya anaerobic mtundu ndi njira yozizira ya okusakaniza shuga. Ndi glycolysis iyi, kutsekemera kwa shuga sikuchitika kwathunthu. Choncho, panthawi ya okosijeni ya shuga, pulogalamu imodzi yokha ya pyruvate imapangidwa. Malinga ndi mphamvu za mphamvu, anaerobic glycolysis ndi yopindulitsa kwambiri kusiyana ndi aerobic glycolysis. Komabe, ngati mpweya umalowa m'seri, anaerobic glycolysis ikhoza kukhala aerobic glycolysis, yomwe imakhala okosijeni yokwanira wa shuga.

Njira ya glycolysis

Pogwiritsa ntchito glycolysis kuwonongeka kwa sikisi ya shuga m'magazi awiri a matatu-carbon pyruvate amapezeka. Zonsezi zikugawidwa mu magawo asanu akukonzekera ndi zina zisanu, pamene ATF imagula mphamvu.

Motero, glycolysis imapitirira mu magawo awiri, yomwe iliyonse imagawidwa mu magawo asanu.

Gawo 1 la momwe shuga imayendera

• Gawo loyamba. Pa gawo loyamba, shuga ndi phosphorylated. Kugwiritsa ntchito saccharide kumachitika ndi phosphorylation pa atomu ya mpweya wachisanu ndi chimodzi.
• Gawo lachiwiri. Pali njira yowonongeka kwa shuga-6-phosphate. Panthawi imeneyi, shuga umasandulika kukhala fructose-6-phosphate pogwiritsa ntchito phosphogluco isomerase.
• Gawo lachitatu. Phosphorylation ya fructose-6-phosphate. Pa nthawi imeneyi, fructose-1,6-diphosphate (yotchedwanso aldolase) imapangidwa ndi phosphofructokinase-1. Imachita nawo pothandizana ndi gulu la phosphoryl kuchokera ku adenosine triphosphate mpaka ku molecule ya fructose.
• Gawo lachinayi. Panthawi imeneyi, aldolase amamangidwa. Chifukwa chake, ma molekyulu awiri a phosphate, makamaka ketoses ndi akulu, amapangidwa.
• Gawo lachisanu. Isomerization ya triisophosphates. Pa nthawiyi, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate imatumizidwa ku magawo otsatirawa a glucose cleavage. Pankhani iyi, dihydroxyacetone phosphate imasanduka mtundu wa glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Kusintha kumeneku kumachitika pogwiritsa ntchito ma enzyme.
• Gawo lachisanu ndi chimodzi. Ndondomeko ya okosijeni ya glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Panthawi imeneyi, molekyulu imakhala yodididwa ndipo imakhala ndi phosphorylation kwa diphosphoglycerate-1,3.
• Gawo lachisanu ndi chiwiri. Njira iyi ikuphatikizapo kuchoka kwa 1,3-diphosphoglycerate ya gulu la phosphate kupita ku ADP. Pamapeto pake, 3-phosphoglycerate ndi ATP amapangidwa.

Gawo 2 - Lembani okosijeni wa shuga

• Gawo lachisanu ndi chimodzi. Panthawi imeneyi, kusintha kwa 3-phosphoglycerate mpaka 2-phosphoglycerate. Njira yotembenuzidwa ikuchitika pogwiritsa ntchito ma enzyme, monga phosphoglycerate mutase. Kachilendo kameneka kamene kamayambitsa mavitamini a shuga amayamba ndi kukhalapo kwa magnesium (Mg).
• Gawo lachisanu ndi chinayi. Panthawi imeneyi kutaya madzi kwa 2-phosphoglycerate kumachitika.
• Gawo lachisanu. Pali kusintha kwa phosphates, komwe kumapezeka chifukwa cha magawo oyambirira, kwa FEP ndi ADP. Kutumiza kwa ADP ndi phosphoenepiroval. Mankhwala oterewa amatha kukhalapo pamaso pa magnesium (Mg) ndi potaziyamu (K) ions.

Pansi pa ziwalo za aerobic, zonsezi zimafika pa CO ₂ ndi H ₂ O. Kufanana kwa okosijeni ya shuga kumawoneka motere:

C ₆ H ₁₂ O ₆ + 6 O ₂ → 6 CO ₂ + 6H ₂ O + 2880 kJ / mol.

Kotero, mu selo mulibe kupeza NADH pakupanga lactate kuchokera mu shuga. Izi zikutanthauza kuti njira yotereyi ndi anaerobic, ndipo ikhoza kuyenda popanda oxygen. Ndilo oxygen - chovomerezeka chomaliza cha electron, chomwe chimasamutsidwa ku NADH mu makina opuma.

Pakuwerengera mphamvu zowonongeka, ziyenera kuganiziridwa kuti gawo lililonse la gawo lachiwiri libwerezedwa kawiri. Kuchokera pazifukwazi, tingathe kuona kuti m'gawo loyamba ma molekyulu a ATP awiri akuwonongeka, ndipo panthawi yachiwiri 4 ATP molecules imapangidwa ndi phosphorylation ya mtundu wa substrate. Izi zikutanthauza kuti chifukwa cha kuyimitsidwa kwa molecule iliyonse ya shuga, selo imasonkhanitsa maselo awiri a ATP.

Tinayang'ana okosijeni ya shuga ndi mpweya.

Anaerobic njira ya shuga zodzozedwa

Miphikidwe ya aerobic ndiyo njira yothetsera okosijeni, imene mphamvu imatulutsidwa ndipo imachitika pamaso pa oksijeni, yomwe imakhala ngati kuvomereza komaliza kwa hydrogen mu chingwe cha kupuma. Wopereka mamolekyu wa haidrojeni ndi mtundu wochepa wa coenzymes (FADH2, NADH, NADPH), yomwe imapangidwa panthawi imodzi yomwe imakhala yodididwa.

Njira yodalirika ya shuga ya mtundu wa aerobic yochititsa chidwi ndiyo njira yaikulu ya katabulisi yamatenda m'thupi la munthu. Mtundu uwu wa glycolysis ukhoza kupangidwa mu tizirombo zonse ndi ziwalo za thupi la munthu. Chotsatira cha izi ndizopangitsa kuti mamolekyu a shuga azikhala ndi madzi ndi carbon dioxide. Ndalama zopatsidwa mphamvu zidzasonkhanitsidwa ku ATP. Njira iyi ingagawidwe mu magawo atatu:

1. Njira yotembenuza kamolekesi ya shuga mu ma molekyulu a asidi a pyruvic. Zomwe zimachitika zimapezeka m'katikati ya maselo ndipo ndi njira yeniyeni ya shuga.
2. Njira yokonzekera acetyl-CoA chifukwa cha kuchulukana kwa magazi kwa asidi ya pyruvic. Izi zimachitika m'ma cell mitochondria.
3. Kutsekemera kwa acetyl-CoA mu kuzungulira kwa Krebs. Zomwe zimachitika zimachitika m'ma cell mitochondria.

Pa gawo lirilonse la njirayi, mitundu yochepa ya coenzymes imapangidwira, yomwe imapangidwanso ndi makina a enzyme a makina opuma. Chotsatira chake, ATP imapangidwa panthawi ya okosijeni ya shuga.

Kupanga coenzymes

Ma coizymes omwe amapanga gawo lachiwiri ndi lachitatu la aerobic glycolysis adzakhala oxidized mwachindunji mitochondria ya maselo. Pogwirizana, NADH, yomwe inakhazikitsidwa mu sitima ya maselo pakapita gawo loyamba la aerobic glycolysis, silingathe kulowa mkati mwa maselo a mitochondria. Hydrojeni imachotsedwa ku NADH kupita ku maselo a mitochondria kudzera mumsewu wa shuttle. Pakati pazinthu zoterezi ndizotheka kutulutsa mchere wambiri wa aspate.

Kenaka, mothandizidwa ndi NADH ya cytoplasm, oxaloacetate imachepetsedwa kukhala nthendayi, yomwe imalowetsa mu mitochondria yamtunduwu ndipo kenako imapangidwanso ndi kuchepetsa NAD mitochondrial. Oxaloacetate amabwerera ku cytoplasm ya selo monga mawonekedwe a aspartate.

Mitundu ya glycolysis

Kutuluka kwa glycolysis kungaperekedwe limodzi ndi kumasulidwa kwa 1,3 ndi 2,3-bisphosphoglycerates. Pachifukwa ichi, 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate ikhoza kubwezeretsedwa ku glycolysis ndondomeko mothandizidwa ndi zamoyo, ndikusintha mawonekedwe ake mpaka 3-phosphoglycerate. Mavitaminiwa amathandiza maudindo osiyanasiyana. Mwachitsanzo, 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate, yomwe ili mu hemoglobin, imalimbikitsa kusintha kwa mpweya m'magazi, motero kumalimbikitsa kupatukana komanso kuchepa kwa okosijeni ndi maselo ofiira a magazi.

Kutsiliza

Mabakiteriya ambiri angasinthe mtundu wa glycolysis pazigawo zosiyanasiyana. N'zotheka kuchepetsa chiwerengero chawo chonse kapena kusintha masitepewa chifukwa cha zochitika zosiyanasiyana za ma enzyme. Ena a anaerobes amatha njira zina zowonongeka chakudya. Ambiri a thermophiles ali ndi timadzi timene timene timapanga tizilombo toyambitsa matenda, makamaka enolase ndi pyruvate kinase.

Tinafufuza momwe mavitamini a shuga mu thupi.