Lanthanides ndi actinides: malo dongosolo zodziwitsa

Aliyense wa zinthu mankhwala tikuonera zipolopolo Dziko Lapansi: m'mlengalenga ndi hydrosphere lithosphere - atha kutumikira ngati chitsanzo yowala kutsimikizira lofunika atomiki ndi maselo ziphunzitso malamulo nthawi ndi nthawi. Iwo anakonza ndi zounikira za History Natural - Russian asayansi M. V. Lomonosovym ndi D. I. Mendeleevym. Lanthanides ndi Actinides - mabanja awiri, amene amapanga 14 zinthu mankhwala, komanso zitsulo okha - lanthanum ndi actinium. katundu - mwakuthupi komanso mankhwala - kuti kulankhula nafe ntchitoyi. Komanso, tingadziwe malo mu dongosolo zodziwitsa a hayidirojeni, lanthanides, actinides zimadalira kapangidwe ka elekitironi orbitals maatomu.

History of anapeza

M'zaka za m'ma 18 mochedwa Yu gadolinium zimapezeka ndi pawiri woyamba ku gulu la padziko zitsulo osowa - okusayidi wa yttrium. M'zaka za m'ma 20, zikomo kufufuza ndi G. Moseley mu umagwirira anadziwa kuti kuli gulu zitsulo. Iwo inali ku gome zodziwitsa pakati lanthanum ndi hafnium. Wina mankhwala mchitidwe - actinium, lanthanum ngati, ndipamene banja 14 nyukiliya zinthu mankhwala, actinides izi. anatulukira mu sayansi chinachitika kuyambira 1879 mpaka cha m'ma 20. Lanthanides ndi actinides ndi zambiri zofanana mu thupi katundu ndi mankhwala. Izi zikhoza anafotokoza dongosolo la ma elekitironi mu maatomu zitsulo awa, madzi a mphamvu, ndicho lanthanide ndi mlingo chachinayi cha f-sublayer, ndi actinides - mlingo wachisanu wa f-sublayer. Kenako, tikambirana za elekitironi zipolopolo maatomu zitsulo tatchulawa mwatsatanetsatane.

Kapangidwe ka zinthu mkati kusintha mu kuwala kwa chiphunzitso atomiki-maselo

Wanzeru Kupezeka kwa kapangidwe ka mankhwala M. V. Lomonosova maziko liwunikidwenso la zipolopolo za elekitironi maatomu. Rutherford chitsanzo cha maziko tinthu Kapangidwe ka chinthu mankhwala, kafukufuku Max Planck, F. Hund analola akatswiri kupeza malongosoledwe olondola a malamulo alipo ya kusintha nthawi ya thupi katundu ndi mankhwala, amene yodziwika ndi lanthanides ndi actinides. Inu simungakhoze kunyalanyaza udindo lamulo nthawi D. I. Mendeleeva mu kuphunzira kwa kapangidwe ka atomu ya zinthu kusintha. Tiyeni tione nkhani mwatsatanetsatane.

Ikani kusintha zinthu mkati mu dongosolo nthawi D. I. Mendeleeva

Mu gulu lachitatu la chisanu - nthawi yaitali - chifukwa zitsulo banja lanthanum, cerium ndipo anakonza zoti lutetium palimodzi. Pa lanthanum atomu 4f-sublayer kanthu ndi kwathunthu anadzazidwa mu ma elekitironi lutetium 14. Pa zinthu oyenerera therebetween, pali kudzazidwa mwapang'onopang'ono f-orbitals. Mu banja la actinides - kuchokera thorium kuti lawrencium - Mfundo imeneyi zimawonedwa kudzikundikira particles zoipa mlandu kusiyana kokha kuti akupezeka kudzaza ma elekitironi 5f-sublayer. Kapangidwe ka mlingo mphamvu kunja ndi chiwerengero cha particles zoipa adalira (wofanana awiri) mu zonse zitsulo pamwamba chomwecho. Zimenezi akuyankha funso chifukwa chomwe lanthanides ndi actinides, wotchedwa mkati kusintha zinthu, ndi zambiri zofanana.

Magwero ena a mabuku mankhwala mabanja onse amaphatikizidwa mu mbali yachiwiri subgroup lapansi. Iwo ali zitsulo ziwiri ku banja lililonse. Mu yochepa mawonekedwe a dongosolo nthawi ya zinthu mankhwala Di Mendeleev oimira mabanja amenewa amakhala patebulo palokha ndipo anakonza mizere osiyana. Choncho, udindo wa actinides ndi lanthanides mu dongosolo nthawi limafanana ndi dongosolo ambiri a dongosolo la maatomu ndi ma elekitironi mu mumtima milingo periodicity kudzaza ndi kukhalapo kwa makutidwe ndi okosijeni yomweyo anachititsa aggregating kusintha zitsulo mkati mwa gulu ambiri. Mu zinthu izi mankhwala ali mbali ndi katundu ofanana lanthanum kapena actinium. Ndicho chifukwa lanthanides ndi actinides kuchotsedwa patebulo la zinthu mankhwala.

Monga kasinthidwe amagetsi a f-sublayer anakopa katundu zitsulo

Monga tidanena kale, udindo wa lanthanides ndi actinides mu dongosolo nthawi mwachindunji Mzimuyo maonekedwe ndi mankhwala. Mwachitsanzo, cerium ayoni, gadolinium, ndi zinthu zina za banja lanthanide ndi mkulu maginito mphindi chifukwa mbali structural wa f-sublayer. N'zotheka ntchito zitsulo dopants yopangira semiconductors ndi katundu maginito. Sulfides banja zinthu actinium (mwachitsanzo, sulfide protactinium, thorium) mu mamolekyulu awo losakanizika mtundu wa mankhwala kulumikiza: amaayoni-covalent kapena covalent-zachitsulo. Izi Mbali structural kwachititsa kuti zikamera wa katundu watsopano thupi ndi mankhwala ndi kutumikira monga yankho ku funso la chifukwa lanthanides ndi actinides ndi katundu fulorosenti. Mwachitsanzo, pokambirana actinium siliva glows mu mdima bluish chowala. Ichi ndi chifukwa zochita za magetsi ayoni panopa zitsulo, photons kuwala, lomwe limapezeka mchikakamizo cha malemeredwe wa maatomu ndi ma elekitironi m'menemo "kudumpha" kwa mlingo mphamvu apamwamba kenako nkubwerera ku kanjira awo n'kupuma. Pachifukwa ichi kuti lanthanides ndi actinides ndi phosphors.

Zotsatira za kuchepetsa radii amaayoni ya ma atomu

Pa lanthanum ndi actinium, ngati zinthu ndi mabanja awo, kuchepa monotonic kukula zizindikiro radii wa ayoni zitsulo. Mu umagwirira, mu Zikatero kulankhula za lanthanide ndi actinide psinjika. umagwirira The chitsanzo zotsatirazi: ndi kuwonjezeka kuyang'anira phata la atomu, pamene nyengo ziwalo wina ndi nthawi yomweyi ndi radii kuchepa kwawo. Izi zikhoza anafotokoza motere: chifukwa zitsulo monga cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, chiwerengero cha milingo mphamvu wa maatomu ndi nthawi wofanana ndi umodzi. milandu Komabe mtima ankalemekeza incremented ndi mmodzi ndipo zimapanga +58, +59, +60. Izi zikutanthauza kuti kumawonjezera mphamvu za anyamata a zipolopolo lamkati la ma elekitironi kwa phata ndithu mlandu. Motero pali kuchepetsa wa radii ya ma atomu. The mankhwala amaayoni zitsulo ndi kuwonjezeka atomiki nambala ya radii amaayoni komanso ndi kuchepetsedwa. kusintha oterewa anamuona pa banja zinthu actinium. Ndicho chifukwa lanthanides ndi actinides amatchedwa mapasa. Kuchepetsa ion radii amatsogolera makamaka kufooka katundu yaikulu ya hydroxides wa CE (o) _3, kulima (o) _3, ndi patsinde pa lutetium kale akusonyeza katundu amphoteric.

zosayembekezeka amatsogolera kudzaza 4f-sublevel unpaired ma elekitironi mu orbitals kwa theka la europium atomu. Iye atomu utali wozungulira si yafupika, koma kuchuluka. Kutsatira mu mndandanda wa lanthanides gadolinium 5d-sublevel, pali wina elekitironi 4f-sublevel ofanana kumtsinje. Chotero eg zimayambitsa kuchepa mwadzidzidzi mu utali wozungulira wa maatomu gadolinium. A chodabwitsa ofanana zimawonedwa mu nsapato ytterbium - lutetium. Amafotokozera loyamba la atomu utali wozungulira lalikulu chifukwa kumaliza kudzaza 4f-sublayer, pamene lutetium izo mwadzidzidzi amachepetsa monga pa 5d-sublevel elekitironi anati maonekedwe. Mu actinium ndi zinthu zina nyukiliya mu izi radii banja la maatomu ndi ayoni sasintha monotonically, koma komanso za lanthanides, mu leaps ndi malire. Choncho, lanthanides ndi actinides ndi zinthu zimene zimatha mankhwala awo correlatively zimadalira utali wozungulira amaayoni ndi dongosolo la zipolopolo za elekitironi ya ma atomu.

valence limati

Lanthanides ndi Actinides zikhalidwe amene makhalidwe ofanana ndithu. Kwenikweni, nkhawa limati awo makutidwe ndi okosijeni mu ayoni ndi valence ndipo maatomu. Mwachitsanzo, thorium, protactinium, naonetsere ndi valency atatu, mu mankhwala a Th (o) _3, PaCl _3, ThF _3, Pa ₂ (NKHA _{3) 3.} onse a zinthu zimenezi ndi insoluble ndi chimodzimodzi katundu mankhwala monga zitsulo kuchokera lanthanum banja: .., cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, ndi zina zotero mu Lanthanides mankhwala awa kudzakhala trivalent. chitsanzo ichi kamodzinso zimatsimikizira kulondola wa mfundo chathu chakuti lanthanides ndi actinides - mapasa. Iwo ali ofanana katundu thupi ndi mankhwala. Izi zingathe kufotokozedwa kwenikweni kapangidwe ka orbitals elekitironi mu ma atomu mabanja onse a zinthu kusintha mkati.

katundu zitsulo

oimira onse a magulu awiri ndi zitsulo kuti pokhala anamaliza 4f-, 5f-, komanso D-sublevels. Lanthanum ndi mfundo za osowa lapansi otchedwa banja lake. maonekedwe ndi mankhwala ali ofanana kuti payokha m'mikhalidwe choyezera, iwo anasiyanitsidwa ndi vuto lalikulu. Kuwonetsa zambiri makutidwe ndi okosijeni boma +3, zinthu lanthanum mndandanda ndi zambiri zofanana ndi zitsulo zamchere lapansi (barium, calcium, strontium). Actinides komanso ndi zitsulo yogwira kwambiri kuwonjezera komanso nyukiliya.

mbali kandalama wa lanthanides ndi actinides ndi katundu kukhudza monga Mwachitsanzo, finely anagawa pyrophoric. Palinso kuchepetsa kukula kwa zitsulo nkhope zokha lattices crystalline. Kuwonjezera mbali zonse mankhwala mabanja onse - chitsulo ndi Sheen silvery, chifukwa reactivity mkulu wa mpweya mofulumira asiyane. Iwo anaphimba ndi ziwalo okusayidi filimu kuteteza ku makutidwe ndi okosijeni zina. zinthu zonse mokwanira refractory kupatula neptunium, ndi nyukiliyazo basi, limatsogolera kutentha ndi kwambiri pansipa 1000 ° C.

zochita mankhwala khalidwe

Monga tanenera kale, lanthanides ndi actinides ndi mankhwala zitsulo yogwira. Choncho, lanthanum, cerium ndi anthu ena a m'banja mosavuta chikugwirizana ndi zinthu zophweka - halogens, komanso phosphorous, mpweya. Lanthanides amathanso kucheza ndi monoxide onse mpweya ndi mpweya. Iwo amatha kuwola ndinso madzi. Kuwonjezera salt osavuta, monga mwachitsanzo SeCl ₃ kapena PrF _3, iwo apanga salt awiri. Mu umagwirira mawunikidwe, zatenga malo ofunika anachita ndi lanthanide zitsulo-glycine ndi zidulo citric. Chifukwa zovuta mankhwala njira amenewa chagwiritsidwa kwa kulekana kwa osakaniza lanthanides, monga ores.

Ndi kulabadira ndi nitrate, mankhwala enaake ndi zidulo sulphate ndi zitsulo kupanga salt kake. Iwo mosavuta sungunuka m'madzi ndi mosavuta angathe kupanga crystalline hydrates. Tikumbukenso kuti njira amadzimadzi salt lanthanide ndi yofiira, amene anafotokoza ndi kukhalapo mu ayoni wawo. mchere njira samarium kapena praseodymium wobiriwira neodymium - red-wofiirira, europium ndi promethium - pinki. Popeza ayoni mu makutidwe ndi okosijeni boma +3 ndi wachikuda, izo ntchito zasayansi mawunikidwe kwa kudziwika ayoni zitsulo, lanthanides (otchedwa apamwamba anachita). Kwa cholinga chomwecho komanso ntchito njira kusanthula mankhwala monga crystallization fractional ndi ion kuwombola koromatogarafe.

Awiri mwa gulu actinides wa zinthu akhoza kuwasiyanitsa. Izi Berkeley, munda, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium ndi ureniamu, neptunium, nyukiliyazo basi, omeretsy. katundu mankhwala ofanana ndi woyamba ndi lanthanum zitsulo ndi banja lake. Zochitika za gulu lachiwiri ndi ofanana kwambiri makhalidwe mankhwala (zayamba zofanana ndi mnzake). actinides onse msanga kucheza ndi anthu amene sanali zitsulo: sulfure, asafe, mpweya. Ndi mpweya legandami iwo kupanga mankhwala zovuta. Monga mmene taonera, onse mabanja zitsulo ofanana ndi mnzake mu khalidwe mankhwala. Ndicho chifukwa lanthanides ndi actinides zitsulo zambiri amatchedwa awiri.

Mkhalidwe wa hydrogen nthawi dongosolo, ndi lanthanides, ndi actinides

M'pofunika kuganizira mfundo yakuti wa hydrogen ndi mokwanira zotakasika mankhwala. Izo kumaonekera, malinga ndi mankhwala anachita: monga kuchepetsa wothandizila ndi oxidizing wothandizira. N'chifukwa chake mu dongosolo nthawi, haidrojeni ndi imodzi mwa subgroups akuluakulu a magulu awiri.

Haidrojeni woyamba amachita ngati wothandizira kuchepetsa, komanso zitsulo soda, ili apa. Haidrojeni m'malo mwa gulu 7 pamodzi ndi zinthu halogens limasonyeza sichisinthasinthanso ake. Mu nyengo ya chisanu ndi, monga kale uja, banja la lanthanides, anawamasulira mu mzere osiyana mayiko ndi compactness pa tebulo. Seventh nthawi lili ndi gulu la zinthu nyukiliya ndi makhalidwe ofanana akitini. Actinides zili kunja tebulo la zinthu mankhwala Di Mendeleev pansi banja pafupi lanthanum. zinthu izi wa ang'onong'ono kuphunzira, kuyambira phata la atomu awo ndi osalimba kwambiri chifukwa mpweya wa poizoni. Kumbukirani kuti lanthanides ndi actinides ali mkati kusintha zinthu, ndipo makhalidwe awo physicochemical ofanana kwambiri.

njira General yopangira makampani zitsulo

Kupatula thorium, protactinium ndi ureniamu, amene amapangidwa ndi mwachindunji ku ores, actinides ena angathe kukonzekera ndi irradiating zitsanzo za utuluke ureniamu zitsulo zolimba kusuntha neutrons. Mu neptunium mafakitale lonse ndi nyukiliyazo basi ndi yotengedwa mafuta Napereka zina nyukiliya. Dziwani kuti kupeza actinides - ndi mwachilungamo zovuta mtengo ndondomeko, njira yaikulu imene ali ion kuwombola ndi multistage m'zigawo. Lanthanides, ndipo amatchedwa zinthu osowa lapansi, akamagwira electrolysis wa chlorides kapena fluorides. Kuti mupeze lanthanides ultrapure, ntchito metallothermal njira.

Kodi kutsatira kusintha zinthu mkati

The sipekitiramu ntchito zitsulo zimene timaphunzira amakhudza kwambiri. Kuti banja la actinium - ndi, pamwamba, zida zonse nyukiliya ndi mphamvu. Actinides ndi zofunika mankhwala, kudziwika chilema, kusanthula kutsegula. Ndi Sitinganyalanyaze ntchito lanthanides ndi actinides, monga nyutironi adani magwero nyukiliya. Lanthanides ntchito monga zowonjezera alloying kuti kusita ndi zitsulo, komanso kupanga phosphors.

Kufalitsa m'chilengedwe

Oxides wa actinides ndi lanthanides nthawi zambiri amatchedwa zirconium, thorium, yttrium maiko ammwamba. Iwo ndi gwero kwakukulu lokonzekera zitsulo zake. Uranus, monga nthumwi yaikulu ya actinides ali mu wosanjikiza kunja kwa lithosphere mu mawonekedwe a amitundu inayi ores kapena mchere. Choyamba, ndi pitchblende, amene ali ureniamu woipa. Ndi okhutira mkulu wa zitsulo. Kawirikawiri limodzi ndi Analandira madipoziti ureniamu woipa (mitsempha). Zikupezeka Canada, France, Zaire. Maofesi thorium ndi ureniamu ores mumakhalanso ores ena zitsulo zamtengo wapatali ngati golide kapena siliva.

Mndandanda wa zomangira yaiwisi wolemera mu Russia, South Africa, Canada ndi Australia. Ena miyala nyanja muli carnotite mchere. matabwa ake, kuwonjezera ureniamu, vanadium ndipo alowa china. Yachinayi ya ureniamu yaiwisi - ndi mankwala miyala ndi PAMASILETI zhelezouranovye. nkhokwe zawo ali Morocco, Sweden ndi United States. The panopa ankaona zingamuthandize ngati miyala ya malasha ndi lignite munali ureniamu zosafunika. Iwo amatuluka mu Spain, Czech Republic, komanso limati awiri US - North ndi South Dakota.