Mpweya - ichi ... mpweya maatomu. Unyinji wa mpweya

Chimodzi mwa zinthu zambiri zodabwitsa, okhoza kupanga ndalama yaikulu mankhwala osiyanasiyana achilengedwe organic ndi zochita kupanga, ndi mpweya. Ndi zosazolowereka katundu wa mfundo akadali Mendeleev ananeneratu m'tsogolo kwambiri, osanenapo mbali kuwuluridwa panobe.

Kenako anatsimikizira mu mchitidwe. Inali kudziŵika kuti - mkulu biogenic mchitidwe dziko lathuli, lomwe ndi mbali ya mwamtheradi anthu onse. Komanso amatha alipo m'njira zosiyana ukasintha m'zonse, koma zigwirizana yekha maatomu mpweya.

Ambiri, makamaka dongosolo zambiri, ndi nawo ndipo mudzayesa kuyang'ana pa nkhaniyi.

Mpweya: chilinganizo ndi malo dongosolo cha ndende

Dongosolo nthawi ya zinthu mpweya ili mu IV (malinga latsopano chitsanzo 14) gulu, subgroups chachikulu. siriyo nambala yake 6, ndi kulemera atomiki wa 12,011. Mukulemba chinthu chizindikiro C limasonyeza dzina lake mu Latin - carboneum. Pali mitundu yosiyanasiyana imene mpweya alipo. Ndondomeko ili yosiyana kwambiri, ndipo zimadalira zosintha yeniyeni.

Komabe, kulemba anachita maikwezhoni akuimira yeniyeni, kumene. Ambiri, pamene tilankhula za thunthu mu maonekedwe ake angwiro, amawatenga chilinganizo maselo mpweya C, popanda indexing.

History of anapeza amafotokozera

Palokha, izi amafotokozera wakhala kuyambira kwambiri Kale. Ndipotu, mmodzi wa mchere wofunika kwambiri m'chilengedwe - ndi malasha. Choncho, kwa Agiriki akale, Aroma ndiponso mitundu ina chinsinsi iye sanali.

Kuwonjezera mitundu, komanso ntchito daimondi ndi graphite. Omalizira kwa nthawi yaitali anali ndi zambiri zovuta, nthawi popanda kupenda zikuchokera mankhwala graphite anatengedwa monga:

• siliva kutsogolera;
• chitsulo carbide;
• molybdenum sulfide.

Onse anali utoto wakuda ndi ankaona graphite. Kenako kusamvetsetsa imeneyi anaimveketsa, ndi mawonekedwe mpweya wakhala yokha.

Kuyambira 1725 lalikulu malonda phindu kupeza diamondi, ndipo mu 1970, katswiri luso yopangira iwo chongopeka. Popeza 1779, chifukwa cha ntchito Karla Sheele ankayendera katundu mankhwala, lomwe limasonyeza mpweya. Ichi chinali chiyambi cha mndandanda wa atulukira zofunika m'munda wa amafotokozera, nakhala maziko a powunikira mbali zake zonse wapadera.

Isotopes mpweya mu chikhalidwe ndi yogawa

Ngakhale kuti amafotokozera mu funso - ndi michere zofunika wokhutira kwathunthu ndi 0,15% kulemera kwa matanthwe a. Izi zimachitika chifukwa chakuti iwo pansi makope mosalekeza, zachilengedwe kufalitsidwa mu Nature.

Ambiri mankhwala ambiri akhoza anatchula mchere chikhalidwe, imene zikuchokera zikuphatikizapo mpweya. Awa ndi miyala zachilengedwe, monga:

• dolomites ndi limestones;
• anthracite;
• shale mafuta;
• gasi;
• khala;
• mafuta;
• lignite ;
• peat;
• phula.

Komanso sitiyenera kuiwala za zinthu zamoyo zimene zili chabe zapamwamba mankhwala mpweya. Ndipotu, iwo anapanga ndi mapulotini, mafuta, chakudya, zidulo mkati, chotero zofunika structural molekyulu. Ambiri, kutembenuka kwa thupi misa wouma makilogalamu 70 15 mathithi pa chinthu choyera. Ndipo kotero aliyense, osanenapo nyama, zomera ndi zamoyo zina.

Ngati tikulingalira zikuchokera mpweya ndi madzi, ndi, hydrosphere ndi mlengalenga ambiri, pali pano osakaniza kaboni mpweya, anasonyeza mwa chilinganizo NKHA _2. Woipa kapena mpweya woipa - wina mpweya kiyi m'nyanjazi mpweya. Mu mawonekedwe misa nusu ya mpweya wa 0,046%. More kusungunuka mpweya woipa mu madzi a m'nyanja.

Unyinji atomiki mpweya monga mchitidwe wa ndiye 12,011. Amadziwika kuti mtengo uwu masamu ngati zikutanthauza masamu pakati pa kulemera kwa ma atomu a mwachibadwa zikuchitika mitundu yonse isotope, anapatsidwa kuchuluka awo (monga anthu a). Kotero izo ziri mu thunthu mu funso. Pali atatu isotope waukulu, umene uli mu mawonekedwe a mpweya. Ali:

• ¹² C - kachigawo ake misa mu ambiri 98,93%;
• ¹³ C - 1,07%;
• ¹⁴ C - wina nyukiliya theka moyo kwa zaka 5700, khola beta-emitter.

Mu mchitidwe kudziwa geochronological toyesa okalamba ambiri ntchito nyukiliya isotope ¹⁴ C, chomwe ndi chizindikiro, chifukwa nthawi yake yaitali ya kuwonongeka.

Allotropic kusinthidwa kwa mchitidwe wa

Mpweya - ndi mbali yomwe ali mu mawonekedwe a chinthu yosavuta alipo mu njira zosiyanasiyana. Ndiko kuti, akhoza kupanga waukulu kudziwika kwa chibwenzi chiwerengero cha zosintha allotropic.

1. Crystal kusintha - kukhalapo mu mawonekedwe a dongosolo olimba ndi latisi zonse za mtundu atomiki. gulu Izi zikuphatikizapo mitundu monga:

• diamondi;
• fullerenes;
• graphites;
• carbines;
• lonsdaleite;
• mpweya ulusi ndi chubu.

zonse zosiyana izi crystalline latisi Kapangidwe, imene mfundo - mpweya atomu. Choncho, wapadera kwathunthu, osati ofanana katundu komanso kuvutika mankhwala.

2. Amorphous mitundu - mitundu ya mpweya atomu kuti ndi mbali ya mankhwala achilengedwe. Ndiko kuti, si mitundu koyera, ndipo zosafunika za zinthu zina zedi yaing'ono. gulu Izi zikuphatikizapo:

• adamulowetsa mpweya;
• amwala, ndi amtengo;
• chakuda;
• Mpweya Nanofoam;
• anthracite;
• kunyezimira;
• kalasi luso zakuthupi.

Iwo kuphatikiza mbali ya latisi galasi Kapangidwe ka kufotokoza ndi katundu anasonyeza.

3. Mpweya mankhwala mu mawonekedwe a masango. Chotero eg, imene maatomu atsekedwa mu wapadera dzenje mkati conformation, yodzala madzi kapena mtima wa zinthu zina. zitsanzo:

• mpweya nanocone;
• astralenes;
• Dicarbon.

thupi katundu mpweya amorphous

Chifukwa zosiyanasiyana za lonse la zosintha allotropic kuonetsetsa ena onse thupi katundu mpweya ndi kovuta. Kosavuta kulankhula za maonekedwe enieni. Mwachitsanzo, mpweya amorphous ali ndi makhalidwe awa.

1. Pa mtima a mitundu yonse - chabwino-grained zosiyanasiyana graphite.
2. Mkulu kutentha mphamvu.
3. Good wochititsa katundu.
4. Mpweya kachulukidwe pafupifupi 2 g / masentimita ^3.
5. Pamene usavutike pamwamba 1600 C ⁰ kusintha kumachitika mu amatha kuumba graphite.

Mwaye, makala ndi mwala mitundu ankagwiritsa ntchito zolinga mafakitale. Iwo sali kusonyeza kusintha mpweya mu mawonekedwe woyera, koma lili wambirimbiri kwambiri.

crystalline mpweya

Pali njira zambiri zomwe ndi mpweya - mankhwala kupanga timibulu zonse amitundumitundu, imene ma atomu ogwirizana sequentially. Chifukwa cha mapangidwe a zosintha zotsatirazi.

1. Daimondi. Kapangidwe - kiyubiki, amene olumikiza tetrahedrons anayi. Chifukwa, covalent mankhwala nsinga lililonse atomu a machulukitsidwe pazipita ndi amphamvu. Ikufotokoza za thupi katundu mpweya kachulukidwe 3300 makilogalamu / mamita ^3. Mkulu kuuma, zochepa kutentha, pakalibe madutsidwe magetsi - zonsezi ndi chifukwa cha dongosolo galasi latisi. Pali mwaukadaulo opangidwa diamondi. Anapanga pa kusintha kwa graphite mu kusinthidwa zotsatirazi mchikakamizo cha kutentha ndi kuthamanga ena. Ambiri, diamondi limatsogolera kutentha ndi mkulu monga mphamvu - za 3500 ⁰ C.
2. Graphite. Maatomu imakonzedwa monga kapangidwe ka zinthu m'mbuyomo, koma machulukitsidwe amapezeka limasonyeza atatu okha, ndipo wachinayi yaitali zochepa cholimba, izo zikugwirizana ndi "zigawo" hexagonal latisi mphete. Chotsatira kuti graphite - zofewa, aliwonse kwa kukhudza zinthu zakuda. Iwo ali wabwino magetsi madutsidwe ndipo ali limatsogolera mfundo mkulu - 3525 ⁰ C. Akhoza sublimation - sublimation ku kolimba kwa mpweya, anyalanyaza madzi (pa kutentha kwa 3700 ⁰ C). Mpweya kachulukidwe - 2,26 g / ^cm3, amene ali m'munsi kuposa diamondi. N'chifukwa katundu wawo osiyana. Chifukwa cha kapangidwe magawo a kophimba galasi ndi zotheka kugwiritsa ntchito graphite kwa zotsimikizira amangomvera ali mapensulo yosavuta. Pochititsa flakes exfoliate pepala ndi tchuthi kufufuza pa pepala zakuda.
3. Fullerenes. Zinali ndi okhawo mu 80s Mu zaka zapitazo. Iwo kuimira kusinthidwa, imene carbons ndi cholukanalukana mu wapadera chatsekedwa dongosolo otukukira kunja ndi malo dzenje. Ndi mawonekedwe a galasi - ndi polyhedron, bungwe zolondola. chiwerengero cha maatomu ngakhale. The odziwika bwino mawonekedwe a fullerene C _60. Zitsanzo za nkhaniyi anapezeka mu maphunziro:

• meteorites;
• m'dambo;
• folguritov;
• shungites;
• malo mpweya ali mawonekedwe.

mitundu yonse ya crystalline mpweya zofunika zothandiza, kuyambira ali nazo zingapo katundu zothandiza luso.

reactivity

Maselo mpweya ali otsika reactivity chifukwa kasinthidwe ake khola. Kumupanga iye anatani, mukhoza ndimangonena mphamvu atomu zina ndi kukakamiza ma elekitironi ndi wosanjikiza kunja kwa nthunzi. Pa nthawi imeneyi amakhala wofanana ndi valence wa 4. Choncho, kugwirizana kwa liri ndi makutidwe ndi okosijeni boma la + 2, + 4 - 4.

Pafupifupi onse mosiyanasiyana ndi zinthu zophweka monga zitsulo ndi nonmetals, zimachitika mchikakamizo cha kutentha. Ankaona mchitidwe zimakhala oxidizing wothandizila ndi wothandizila kuchepetsa. Komabe, yotsirizira anali katundu lofotokozedwa makamaka kwambiri, zochokera ntchito imeneyi m'mafakitale ake zitsulo ndi zina.

Ambiri, luso kulowa mogwirizana mankhwala kumatengera zifukwa zitatu:

• mpweya kupezeka;
• allotropic kusinthidwa;
• anachita kutentha.

Choncho, zina, interacts ndi zotsatirazi zinthu:

• nonmetals (wa hydrogen, mpweya);
• zitsulo (zitsulo zotayidwa, chitsulo, calcium, etc.);
• oxides zitsulo ndi mchere awo.

Ndi zidulo ndi alkalis Kodi samva ndi halogens chosowa kwambiri. The katundu wofunika kwambiri mpweya - kuthekera kupanga unyolo yaitali ndi mzake. Iwo akhoza kutseka mu nthambi kuzungulira mawonekedwe. Popeza mapangidwe mankhwala organic, amene lero chiwerengero mu mamilioni. Chifukwa cha mankhwala awa zinthu ziwiri - mpweya wa hydrogen. Komanso kapangidwe mwina mulinso maatomu ena mpweya, asafe, sulfure, halogens, phosphorous, ndi miyala ina.

mankhwala Basic ndi mapangidwe awo

Pali ambiri mankhwala osiyanasiyana mu zikuchokera womwenso mpweya. Chilinganizo otchuka awa - NKHA ₂ - mpweya. Komabe, mu okusayidi Komanso, pali NKHA - monoxide kapena mpweya monoxide ndi nedooksid C ₃ O _2.

Pakati pa salt, monga amafotokozera yogwira, ambiri ali kashiamu ndi magnesium carbonates. Choncho kashiamu carbonate angapo a ofanana mu mutu, monga opezeka mu chikhalidwe mu mawonekedwe:

• choko;
• nsangalabwi;
• anajambulapo;
• dolomite.

Kufunika kwa zamchere carbonates lapansi zitsulo akuwonetseredwa mu chakuti gulu mwakhama njira za mapangidwe stalactites ndi stalagmites, komanso pansi.

Carbonic asidi - pawiri wina kuti ndipamene mpweya. chilinganizo ake - H ₂ NKHA _3. Komabe, mu mawonekedwe ochiritsira, ndi sinkakhala Nthawi yomweyo njira amaola mu mpweya woipa komanso madzi. Choncho, kokhaku salt ake, koma si yokha, ngati yankho.

mpweya halides - analandira makamaka kudzera mozungulira, monga syntheses mwachindunji yekha pa kutentha kwambiri ndi otsika lochuluka. Mmodzi wa ambiri - CCL ₄ - mpweya tetrachloride. A pawiri poizoni zomwe zingachititse poizoni ndi inhalation. Akamagwira zochita kwakukulu photochemical a m'malo maatomu wa hydrogen mu dziko.

Zitsulo carbides - mpweya pawiri, limene liri ndi makutidwe ndi okosijeni boma 4. Komanso nkotheka kuli Kugwirizana ndi boron ndi pakachitsulo. Chuma chachikulu cha ena carbides zitsulo (zitsulo zotayidwa, tungsten, titaniyamu, niobium, tantalum, hafnium) - mphamvu yapamwamba ndipo kwambiri magetsi madutsidwe. Boron carbide B ₄ C - wina wa zipangizo chovuta pambuyo diamondi (Mohs 9.5). mankhwala awa ntchito zomangamanga, komanso makampani mankhwala monga magwero a chimasanduka (kashiamu carbide ndi madzi kumabweretsa mapangidwe a acetylene ndi hydroxide kashiamu).

Ambiri zitsulo kasakaniza wazitsulo chopangidwa ntchito mpweya kwambiri potero kuwonjezeka khalidwe lawo ndi specifications (zitsulo - ndi aloyi chitsulo ndi mpweya).

Munthu tcheru zambiri organic mpweya pawiri, imene - chinthu zimachititsa kuti akhoza chokhudzana ndi maatomu chomwecho mu unyolo yaitali nyumba zosiyana. Njirazi ndi monga:

• alkanes;
• alkenes;
• m'bwalomo;
• mapuloteni;
• chakudya;
• zidulo mkati;
• alcohols;
• asidi carboxylic ndi makalasi zina zambiri zinthu.

The ntchito mpweya

Kutanthauza mankhwala mpweya ndi zosintha ake allotropic moyo wa anthu kwambiri. Mungathe kuitana ena mwa mafakitale kwambiri padziko lonse, kuonetseratu kuti zimenezi n'zoona.

1. mchitidwe uwu ndipamene mitundu yonse ya mafuta okumba pansi amene munthu amalandira mphamvu.
2. makampani zitsulo amagwiritsa mpweya monga amphamvu kuchepetsa wothandizila kubala zitsulo kwa mankhwala awo. Pali ankagwiritsa ntchito monga carbonates.
3. Kumanga ndi makampani mankhwala kugula kuchuluka kwa mankhwala mpweya mu kaphatikizidwe wa zinthu zatsopano ndi kupeza mankhwala ofunikira.

Mulinso kumabungwe amenewa a chuma, monga:

• makampani nyukiliya;
• zodzikongoletsera kupanga;
• zida (kondomu, mkulu-kutentha crucibles, mapensulo, etc.);
• Khama la zaka miyala ya miyala - nyukiliya tracer ¹⁴ C;
• mpweya - zodabwitsa adsorbent, zikhoza kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa kupanga Zosefera.

Mkombero m'chilengedwe

Unyinji wa mpweya pano mu chikhalidwe, zili m'gulu zonse adzizungulira, amene amachitidwa cyclically iliyonse chachiwiri padziko lonse. Choncho, gwero mumlengalenga mpweya - NKHA ₂ ndi chosakanikirana ndi zomera ndi kumasulidwa ndi anthu onse okhala mu ndondomeko ya kupuma. Kamodzi mu mlengalenga, izo kachiwiri odzipereka, ndi kayendedwe ka akupitiriza. Choncho ikutha zotsatira zatsalira organic mu kumasulidwa mpweya ndi kudzikundikira ake mu nthaka, kumene ndiye kachiwiri chosakanikirana ndi zamoyo kudzapereka mu mlengalenga ngati mpweya.